Transboundary and Emerging Diseases

Background Following the emergence of a novel Shamonda-like virus (SHAV) in Europe, suspected clinical cases in dairy cattle were reported in Northeastern Italy. Investigation was required in dairy cattle in Northeastern Italy. Methods Samples were collected from 28 farms displaying fever and reduced milk yield and were screened using molecular methods (PanSimbu real-time RT-PCR followed by Sanger sequencing and differential PCRs for SBV/BTV). Positive samples were subsequently confirmed by Sanger sequencing and selected samples underwent whole-genome sequencing using a metagenomic approach. Results Twenty-four among sera and blood samples from 12 farms tested positive for SHAV. WGS confirmed that Italian strains share maximum identity with the European SHAV-EU1 clade. Limitations This study concerns the results of clinical investigations on suspected cases in the two autonomous provinces of Trento and Bolzano. At present, it is not possible to infer on the circulation of the virus in other Italian provinces. Conclusions This study documents the first detection and genetic characterization of SHAV-EU1 in Italian cattle, indicating active circulation of this virus across Europe. Its identification in two north-eastern Italian provinces does not rule out wider, undetected circulation. In this regard, assessing its geographical extent requires careful evaluation, just as much remains to be discovered about its host range and the severity of symptoms.

Porcine adenoviruses are common in domestic pigs and are generally regarded as low-pathogenicity viruses associated with mild or subclinical infections. However, their diversity, host associations and disease potential remain poorly understood. Here, we investigated a disease outbreak in an immunologically naive 320-sow high-health hysterectomy-derived pig herd in New Zealand. The outbreak was characterised by anorexia, lethargy, diffuse cutaneous erythema, death in neonatal piglets, and an increased occurrence of mummified fetuses. Histopathological examination of a piglet revealed widespread intranuclear inclusion bodies within endothelial cells, indicative of systemic viral infection. Total RNA sequencing was performed on tissues from an affected piglet and mummified fetuses. Metatranscriptomic analysis identified an abundant adenovirus in multiple piglet and aborted fetus tissues, and de novo assembly recovered a 27,685-nucleotide genome. Phylogenetic analysis placed the virus within the genus Mastadenovirus but it formed a divergent lineage distinct from all previously characterised porcine adenoviruses. Despite sequence divergence, the genome retained the characteristic organisation of mastadenoviruses. Aside from a single detection of porcine kobuvirus identified at low abundance in the small intestine and colon from the piglet, no other viral pathogens were identified. The high viral abundance and systemic tissue distribution observed in both the piglet and fetus, together with the presence of widespread adenoviral inclusion bodies in the piglet, support an association between this novel adenovirus and the disease outbreak. These findings expand the diversity of porcine adenoviruses and suggest that previously unrecognised adenovirus lineages may contribute to reproductive and neonatal disease when introduced into immunologically naive high-health herds.

Since mid-June 2026, an acute, non-fatal syndrome with high herd morbidity, reduced milk yield, diarrhea, fever and lethargy affected dairy cattle in southern Germany and Switzerland. Major viral pathogens were excluded. Pan-Simbuvirus PCR first detected an orthobunyavirus, subsequently confirmed by metagenomic sequencing, which enabled recovery of a complete "Shamonda-like" genome. One sentence summary lineMore than a decade after the emergence of Schmallenberg virus in 2011, a novel "Shamonda-like" orthobunyavirus of the Simbu serogroup has now emerged in Central Europe.

Neoehrlichia mikurensis is widely detected in tick populations across Europe, yet its host range beyond small rodents remains poorly understood. Large wild mammals are frequently exposed to tick vectors, but their role in the transmission cycle of this bacterium is unclear. Wild boars (Sus scrofa) are among the most abundant large mammals in southern Sweden and commonly inhabit tick-infested environments, making them a potentially relevant host species. In this study, spleen samples from 87 wild boars collected between 2023 and 2025 across southern and central Sweden were analysed for the presence of N. mikurensis DNA using quantitative polymerase chain reaction. N. mikurensis DNA was not detected in any of the analysed samples, despite sampling in regions where the bacterium is known to be prevalent in ticks. These results indicate that wild boars may have a limited role in the maintenance of N. mikurensis in Sweden, although the possibility of rare or transient infection cannot be excluded. Despite being based on negative findings, this study contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of the host range of N. mikurensis and highlights the importance of continued evaluation of wildlife species in the transmission dynamics of tick-borne pathogens.

Background: Listeria monocytogenes causes invasive infections with high mortality. However, ecological studies linking human incidence to livestock and weather remain scarce. This retrospective study analyzed the geographical distribution of human listeriosis in Spain using nationwide hospitalization data, livestock censuses, and meteorological records. Methods: Negative binomial regression models, spatial autocorrelation (Moran's Index), and bivariate local indicators of spatial association (LISA) analysis were applied. Results: Between 2016 and 2024, 4,391 hospital admissions were recorded. The national mean incidence was 1.03 per 100,000 inhabitants, peaking in 2019. Bovine density was the primary environmental driver, with an 11% increased risk per 10 heads/km2. Weather-livestock synergies were observed: bovine-associated risk increased exponentially at higher temperatures ([~]21 C) and lower humidity (53%), whereas caprine-associated incidence peaked at cooler temperatures ([~]13 C). Spatial mapping revealed northern clusters for bovine reservoirs and southern segregation for caprine reservoirs, with no associations for ovine or porcine livestock. Conclusions: Zoonotic risk is environmentally conditioned, with weather acting as a biological trigger. This study highlights the critical role of ruminant farming practices and the need for a "One Health" surveillance approach that integrates meteorological and farming data to predict seasonal outbreaks and optimize food chain safety.

African swine fever (ASF) in wild boar poses major surveillance and control challenges, particularly in periurban and human-modified landscapes where ecological complexity, delayed detection, and heterogeneous host movements complicate out-break interpretation. In late 2025, ASF was detected in wild boar in Catalonia, Spain, creating a high-priority epidemiological scenario at the wildlife-urban interface. In this study, we analysed the 2025-2026 Catalonia outbreak using scenario-based spatial modelling with the WIMBOARD (Wild Integrated Movement Boar Outbreak and Risk Dynamics) framework. Simulations under baseline control conditions were used to interpret spread dynamics and support anticipatory surveillance. The results indicate that outbreak expansion was structured and directional rather than isotropic. Temporal outputs suggested delayed detectability between infection prevalence and mortality signals, whereas cumulative spatial risk maps, time-to-infection surfaces, and monthly infection-risk dynamics identified directional asymmetries and differentiated phases of spread. An early southward dispersal signal was consistent with initial field observations, while the north-northwest sector emerged as the most consequential expansion scenario because of its stronger functional connectivity and higher potential for regional amplification and persistence, while a later northeast-ward phase remained comparatively less influential within the 500-day simulation horizon. Monthly risk surfaces further showed that ASF spread behaved as a moving eco-epidemiological wavefront, allowing identification of shifting surveillance windows before mortality became apparent. These findings support the interpretation of the Catalonia outbreak as a landscape-mediated epidemiological process shaped by functional connectivity, wildlife behavioural adaptation, peri-urban ecological structure, and delayed detection. This study shows how spatially explicit eco-epidemiological modelling can support outbreak interpretation, surveillance prioritisation, and proactive wildlife disease management under complex field conditions.

Dermatophilus congolensis is a zoonotic gram-positive bacterium causing dermatophilosis, a skin infection primarily affecting animals and uncommonly reported in humans. Although human infections have traditionally been associated with animal contact, recent reports suggest alternative transmission pathways. We investigated an outbreak among contact sport athletes in Trondheim, Norway, during July to September 2025, using structured interviews and whole-genome sequencing. Nine confirmed cases were identified. Symptoms were mild and consisted mainly of pustular lesions affecting the face, arms, back, and chest. None of the cases reported animal contact. Genomic analysis confirmed species identity and showed that outbreak isolates were highly related, differing by only 0-7 core-genome single nucleotide polymorphisms. The Trondheim isolates clustered with strains from recent outbreaks in Spain and France, suggesting international dissemination of a shared clone. These findings identify contact sports as a potential setting for transmission of human dermatophilosis and highlight the value of genomic surveillance for outbreak investigation.

Since 2020, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A(H5Nx) clade 2.3.4.4b viruses have spread globally, causing extensive outbreaks in domestic and wild birds. Increased circulation has resulted in frequent spillover to mammals, and occasional mammal-to-mammal transmission. Although human infections remain rare, the zoonotic potential of these viruses continues to be a public health concern. We investigated six cases of HPAI in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Norway during 2022-2024 and identified infections with H5N1 and H5N5 viruses. Pathological and virological investigations demonstrated systemic infection, with prominent lesions in the brain and/or lungs. Phylogenetic analyses showed high similarity between viruses detected in foxes and those concurrently circulating in wild birds. The mammalian adaptation marker PB2:E627K was identified in one H5N1 virus and as a minority variant in a second H5N1 virus.

Recent zoonotic coronavirus outbreaks have sparked an interest in understanding coronaviruses circulating in animal reservoirs. While bats are recognised as major reservoirs for these viruses, coronaviruses have also been detected in a wide range of terrestrial small mammals, particularly rodents. However, coronavirus diversity in these mammals, specifically in Europe, is still poorly characterised. In this study, we detected and characterised coronaviruses in terrestrial small mammals and bats from Belgium, France, Germany, and Ireland. We screened tissue samples from rodents and shrews and environmental bat guano using pan-coronavirus real-time and conventional PCRs, with positive results confirmed by sanger sequencing. Among 2667 bat and 1152 terrestrial mammal samples, we detected 59 positive samples, 36 from bats and 23 from rodents, from which we recovered 60 coronavirus sequences, spanning both Alphacoronavirus and Betacoronavirus lineages. Through next generation sequencing we identified one Pipistrellus pygmaeus bat guano sample carrying two distinct alphacoronaviruses, representing Nyctacovirus and Pedacovirus subgenera. Among rodents, most coronavirus-positive samples originated from a zoo in Belgium, where several CoV lineages co-circulated. The identified rodent coronaviruses clustered among previously described rodent-associated lineages, some of which also include human and other mammal-derived coronavirus sequences. Consistent with previous studies, we found sarbecoviruses in horseshoe bats (particularly Rhinolophus ferrumequinum and R. hipposideros) and merbecoviruses in Plecotus auritus bats, and these viruses are distantly related to the human coronaviruses of the respective families. Similar to bat coronaviruses, some rodent coronaviruses strains seemed to be association with specific rodent species. In conclusion, our study enhances the understanding of coronaviruses in rodents and bats, revealing potential hotspots for these viruses and their implication for human and animal health. These findings underscore the necessity for continued surveillance of coronaviruses in wildlife reservoirs to mitigate future zoonotic spillover risks.

Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is a zoonotic flavivirus maintained in complex enzootic cycles involving ticks and vertebrate hosts. While vector-mediated transmission has been extensively studied, host-associated mechanisms, including vertical transmission and prolonged viral carriage in natural reservoir populations, remain poorly understood. Here, we investigated TBEV circulation, genetic diversity, and evidence for vertical transmission in bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) from a highly endemic region of North-eastern Poland. A total of 258 wild rodents were screened using molecular and serological approaches. TBEV RNA was detected in 14.3% of individuals, whereas seroprevalence was substantially lower (6.6%), revealing limited concordance between viral presence and humoral response under natural conditions. Near-complete genome sequences were obtained from 10 TBEV-positive individuals, representing the first near-complete TBEV genomes generated from wild rodents in Poland. All isolates belonged to the European subtype (TBEV-Eu), and phylogenetic analysis revealed two genetically distinct viral clades co-circulating within a narrow spatiotemporal window. Importantly, TBEV RNA and/or envelope protein were detected in embryos from naturally infected females, providing evidence consistent with vertical transmission in a wild reservoir host. Together, these findings suggest that vertical transmission and complex host infection dynamics may be underappreciated components of TBEV maintenance in natural reservoir populations. Our results highlight the need to integrate vertebrate host dynamics into models of TBEV ecology and support expanded wildlife-based surveillance to better understand and predict zoonotic risk.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is among the most significant disease threats to poultry worldwide. Modelling challenges, where independent teams address a common epidemiological scenario, can support the development of response capabilities and strengthen communication between modellers and risk managers. Despite the established benefits of these exercises, they remain uncommon in animal health, and none have previously addressed avian influenza. Here Jolly Island, an artificial landscape of 9160 poultry farms with five production types, was developed and seeded with stochastic HPAI epidemics that ran their course over a three-to-four month period. From January through April 2026, 45 registered teams across five continents investigated a selected synthetic epidemic, producing probabilistic forecasts, inferring transmission drivers, and evaluating counterfactual control policies. Here the objectives, design choices, and data generation of the HPAI Modelling Challenge are described in full, covering transmission processes, surveillance system operations, and control strategy implementation, along with the selected epidemic trajectory, the narrative situation reports supplied to the teams at each phase, and the complete phase-specific datasets released to them. As the opening paper of this special issue, here is provided the foundation upon which all subsequent contributions, where teams document their approaches and analyses, are built.

Measurement uncertainty can affect the classifications of individual as positive or negative, and thus, the diagnostic performances of a test. Existing methods to assess measurement uncertainty and its impact on diagnostic performance are difficult to apply in the absence of a gold standard. We proposed a method applicable to any quantitative diagnostic test and in the absence of a gold standard, and applied it to ELISA tests for Q fever serology in ruminants. We assessed measurement uncertainty using a mixed-effects model on data from an inter-laboratory proficiency testing. Then, we estimated the sensitivities and specificities accounting for measurement uncertainty. To do so, we combined, for each individual of a sample representative of the population, the probability of being truly seropositive and the probability of being positive when retested in another laboratory. We also estimated the sensitivity and specificity of each laboratory and of each batch, taking into account their bias. While the sensitivities and specificities of the ELISA tests were slightly affected by the measurement uncertainty, they varied between laboratories and between batches. This highlights the importance of harmonising analytical practices across laboratories and calibrating batches. The extent to which measurement uncertainty impacts diagnostic performance depends not only on the values of the inter- and intra-laboratory standard deviations, but also on the position of the cut-off in the population's measurand distribution. Therefore, in addition to the analytical performance of a test, the position of the cut-off relative to the distribution of test value is an essential parameter to consider.

The emergence of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI 2.3.4.4b) in dairy herds in 2024 across 19 states in the United States of America has raised concerns regarding the potential national and global zoonotic impact. All recent modeling efforts implemented homogenous cattle-to-cattle (both intra and inter-herd) transmission models which did not capture the real-world heterogeneity in mixing of animals, individual variations in susceptibility and infectiousness and clinical incidences across pens and lactation groups. The aim of this study was to develop a heterogenous transmission model to estimate the epidemiological parameters for intra-herd HPAI transmission on Californian dairies. We developed a validated stochastic agent-based model to estimate the epidemiological parameters for intra-herd HPAI transmission on California dairies. The hierarchical agent-based model also parameterized stochastic cattle movements within-herd to simulate real dairy management practices. A cow-level SEIR transmission approach was assumed during the outbreak. A novel Bayesian Optimizer with Gaussian Process (BO-GP) was fitted to the agent-based model for validation which converged within 25-40 iterations (out of 100 per farm) with minimal loss over two distinct error metrics, namely, Poisson loss function and temporal distance metric. Our optimized simulations estimated an average R0 was around 10.7-10.8 across all farms within the first 15 days of observed outbreak on four dairy farms with a mean effective transmission rate of 4.5% per contact between susceptible and infectious cows within each pen. Our model demonstrated that the movement of cows between pens ensured localized clusters of outbreaks within the sub-herds (pen population) that prolonged the overall outbreak within farms. We estimated the total duration of infection between 14.5 and 28 days, which is higher than the estimates from the homogenous models. With an integrated hierarchical agent-based model combined with Bayesian approximation, we produced actionable insights on the epidemiology of intra-farm spread of HPAI within cow herds, thereby guiding both future model development and applied disease control strategy.

High pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) H5 clade 2.3.4.4b is the main driver of the ongoing unprecedented global panzootic. The recently emerged HPAI H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b genotype EA-2024-DI.2.1 has become predominant in Europe, with migratory wild birds, particularly waterfowl, playing a major role in its dissemination. Egypt lies along major Afro-Eurasian migratory flyways, which have historically played an important role in the introduction of emerging H5Nx viruses into the country. In this study, targeted surveillance was conducted on 416 wild birds offered for sale in in live bird markets (LBMs) and roadside trading points in northern Egypt, mainly in Damietta and Port Said. Of these, 118 birds showing mild clinical signs were examined post-mortem and lung and tracheal tissues were collected, while oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs were collected from apparently healthy birds. Avian influenza virus was detected by RT-qPCR in 22 wild birds, all from tissue samples, whereas all swabs from apparently healthy birds were negative. Waterfowl accounted for 16 of the 22 positive birds (72.7%), with Eurasian teal showing the lowest Ct values (21-25). Phylogenetic and whole-genome analyses showed that the sequenced wild-bird viruses clustered within the recently emerged EA-2024-DI.2.1 sub-lineage and were closely related to contemporary European viruses. Compared with the EA-2021-AB genotype currently circulating in Egyptian poultry, the EA-2024-DI.2.1 viruses showed several HA amino acid differences, including A83D, L104M and T195A. These findings provide evidence for the introduction of EA-2024-DI.2.1 into Egypt through migratory wild birds and highlight the importance of continued genomic surveillance at the wild bird domestic poultry interface and antigenic evaluation against vaccines currently used in Egypt.

Gastrointestinal Vibrio parahaemolyticus infections, primarily associated with consumption of oysters, are emerging in Australia, where previously little was known about the disease and epidemiology. Following a multijurisdictional outbreak in 2021 and additional smaller outbreaks in subsequent years, an opportunistic whole genome sequencing study was undertaken to characterise human illness-causing strains in Australia. Through a multijurisdictional collaboration that bridged research, government, pathology service providers, aquaculture and clinicians, 676 V. parahaemolyticus genomes were contributed for analysis from human clinical, food, and environmental samples. We identified ST36, ST50 and ST417 as the dominant multi-locus sequence types causing gastrointestinal illness nationally. Phylogeographic contextualisation of Australian V. parahaemolyticus sequences within the global dataset indicates the Australian and New Zealand ST36 strain originated from a single point of introduction from the US Pacific-Northwest and is now circulating locally. In contrast, ST50 and ST417 appear to be endemic across Australia, with multiple lineages co-circulating. These findings establish a baseline for future outbreak investigations of V. parahaemolyticus in Australia and the consolidation of Australian data provides a critical platform for ongoing research, public health surveillance and risk mitigation.

Parasitic infections pose multifaceted threats to farmed fish, extending beyond direct pathogenicity to facilitate infections of bacteria, viruses, and microparasites. This synergistic interaction often leads to co-infections that significantly exacerbate disease outbreaks and mortality, presenting a severe challenge to aquaculture sustainability. Recently, a novel trypanosomiasis caused by the Trypanosoma carassii spectrum has emerged in cage-cultured Larimichthys crocea along the southeast coast of China, resulting in widespread prevalence and high mortality rates. Although this pathogen is hypothesized to originate from freshwater fish, its transmission route in marine environments has remained elusive. In this study, we investigated potential vectors and intermediate hosts of T. carassii spectrum, including leeches and monogenean in natural marine settings, and simulated transmission pathways using an established laboratory model involving T. carassii spectrum, Micropterus salmoides and the leech Poecilobdella manillensis. First, our field surveys in the coast of Ningde, Fujian Province, revealed a nearly 100% co-infection rate of T. carassii spectrum and the monogenean Neobenedenia girellae in diseased juvenile L. crocea. PCR analysis detected T. carassii spectrum traces in some N. girellae specimens, and subsequent experiments confirmed that N. girellae ingests the trypanosome while feeding on host blood. Furthermore, bacterial co-pathogens, such as Vibrio harveyi, were also detected within N. girellae. We also document two fatal leech infestations: Zeylanicobdella arugamensis in hybrid groupers (Epinephelus moara [female] X Epinephelus lanceolatus [male]) in Zhangpu, and Limnotrachelobdella okae in E. lanceolatus and E. fuscoguttatus in Raoping. These leeches tested negative for trypanosomes but carried pathogenic bacteria that co-infected the host fish; nonetheless, they are established vectors for trypanosome transmission. In a laboratory cohabitation model simulating T. carassii spectrum transmission, infected M. salmoides were housed with healthy conspecifics under three conditions: Group A (with the leech P. manillensis), Group B (no leeches), and Group C (no leeches, with physical separation between infected and healthy fish). After 14 days, blood smear microscopy and PCR analysis revealed infection rates in healthy fish of 58.33% in Group A, 40.00% in Group B, and 0% in Group C. Conclusively, T. carassii spectrum can be transmitted via leeches (with higher efficiency) and may also spread through direct contact under high-density aquaculture conditions, whereas N. girellae may act as an incidental vector, further research is warranted to clarify transmission dynamics in natural marine ecosystems. Additionally, our findings highlight the role of ectoparasites, including N. girellae and leeches, as potential reservoirs and vectors for bacterial pathogens of fish. In high-density intensive aquaculture, this vectorial capacity transforms parasites from primary pathogens into key drivers of polymicrobial disease outbreaks.

The continued circulation of H5 clade 2.3.4.4b highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) has caused extensive mortality in wild bird populations worldwide with increasing spillover to mammals. In 2022, H5 HPAIV emerged in Svalbard, Norway, with subsequent detections in wild birds, walruses, polar bears, and arctic foxes. To understand the population-level exposure among Svalbard arctic foxes, we analysed body fluids from carcasses trapped in 2006-2015 (n = 56), 2023-2024 (n = 112), and 2024-2025 (n = 94) for antibodies to H5 avian influenza (anti-H5), influenza A nucleoprotein (anti-NP), and neuraminidase subtypes using ELISAs, haemagglutination inhibition (HI), and a multiplex assay. Only three samples from 2006-2015 tested positive for anti-H5 and were interpreted as false positives. In 2023-2024, seropositivity for anti-H5 was high (95%), supported by a lower anti-NP seropositivity (85%) and antibody profiles consistent with mixed H5N1 (42%) and H5N5 (52%) exposure. In 2024-2025, anti-H5 and anti-NP seroprevalences remained high (83% and 57%), with H5N5 (87%) exposure predominating over H5N1 (3%). A subset of anti-H5-positive samples tested positive by HI (2023-2024: 30%; 2024-2025: 14%). Juveniles with exposure limited to the previous season had higher odds of anti-H5 seropositivity in 2023-2024 than in 2024-2025 (OR 5.5). Analysis of paired lung extracts from a subset of individuals (n = 63) yielded results concordant with body fluids, using an indirect anti-H5 ELISA adapted for carnivores. Our findings demonstrate widespread H5 virus exposure. Together with occasional reports of progression to fatal HPAI, this highlights the need for continued population monitoring to evaluate ecological consequences.

Low pathogenic avian influenza A(H7N7) virus detected in a poultry worker in Taiwan, 2026 was related to viruses circulating in Asian wild birds and possessed PB2 E627K, a mammalian adaptation marker. Enhanced surveillance for H7 viruses in poultry and rapid characterization of human cases are essential to assess pandemic potential.

Chinese bahaba (Bahaba taipingensis) is a fish species endemic to China and listed as a Class I nationally protected wild animal. Although significant breakthroughs have been achieved in its artificial breeding, high mortality rates persist during cultivation. Beginning in August 2024, sustained mass mortalities occurred in artificially farmed Chinese bahaba at a farm in Guangdong Province. Diseased fish exhibited pronounced skin ulcers, ascites, gastroenteritis, and splenomegaly. Histopathological examination revealed severe necrotizing gastroenteritis, gill necrosis and edema, muscle congestion with inflammatory cell infiltration, hepatic congestion with marked vasculitis, renal interstitial necrosis with tubular atrophy, and abundant melanomacrophage centers in the spleen. Based on biochemical characterization and whole-genome phylogenomic analysis, the isolated strain HCY1 was identified as Vibrio harveyi. Artificial infection experiments with this strain resulted in 100% mortality and reproduced clinical signs similar to those in naturally infected fish. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing showed that HCY1 remained susceptible to florfenicol and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, but was resistant to multiple antibiotics, including {beta}-lactams and tetracyclines. Comparative genomic analysis revealed that HCY1 carries various antimicrobial resistance genes primarily conferring resistance to {beta}-lactam and tetracycline antibiotics, consistent with the phenotypic resistance profile. The strain also harbored numerous virulence genes, including complete type III and type VI secretion systems (T3SS and T6SS), tlh, hap/vvp, and rtxB. Its plasmids encoded multiple virulence-enhancing genes, such as mcpA, pal, and esiB. To our knowledge, this is the first systematic investigation of a disease outbreak in cultured Chinese bahaba, and provides valuable insights for disease control and population conservation of this endangered species.

Introduction: Veterinary Professionals are at risk of contracting zoonoses, including potential emerging infections. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) could reduce infection transmission risk, but use of it in the profession is low. Understanding Veterinary Professionals experiences with PPE could help identify facilitators and barriers, therefore informing a future strategy to improve usage. Methods: Two focus group discussion with veterinary nurses and two with veterinarians took place at a tertiary small animal teaching hospital. With an interpretivist epistemology, transcriptions were inductively coded and analysed using thematic analysis. Results: Veterinary Professionals frequently reported underusing PPE, despite significant zoonotic risk. Friction in interdisciplinary relationships negatively impacted veterinary professionals experiences with PPE: differing views on risk, policy and PPE, contrasting perceptions of each other, and challenges with communication impacted PPE decision-making. Barriers included an absence of initial recognition of risk, a staff culture of prioritising patient health over risk to self, friction in response to others PPE use or lack thereof, an overly complex policy, and a lack of cultural and institutional reaction to occupationally contracted zoonoses. Facilitators included effective inter and intradisciplinary communication and previous personal experience with serious zoonoses. Conclusion: Veterinary Professionals experiences with PPE, are shaped by social and professional factors, such as interdisciplinary friction, perceptions of self and others, of risk and policy. Recommendations are for the findings to be used locally to embed PPE use into everyday practice. At a national level, the United Kingdom Health Security Agency (UKHSA) should use the findings to evaluate current policies regarding PPE and zoonoses in veterinary practice and produce a simplified national guidance, in collaboration with veterinary professionals with lived experience. Further research into General Practice Veterinary Professionals experiences and the interdisciplinary social dynamics is recommended.